Čarobnjaci, vještaci i vještice

(c) Lucas Graciano - Gandalf the Grey 

Pošto je ovaj post u originalu bio napisan na engleskom, trebam navesti njegovo prvotno ime pa će vam onda možda biti jasnije o čemu ću govoriti: "Wizards, Warlocks and Witches". Jezične razlike uvije postoje, pa stoga pojmovi u ovim dvama naslovima neće značiti isto u svakoj kulturi. Engleski pojam wizard prevodim kao "čarobnjak", warlock kao "vještac", a witch, naravno, kao "vještica". Zapravo su sporni jedino pojmovi čarobnjaka i vještaca jer stereotipi oko njih nisu toliko izraženi u hrvatskom jeziku koliko u engleskom. Stoga ćete mi morati oprostiti navođenje i engleske i hrvatske terminologije u ovom postu. No, dosta uvodnih riječi. Bacimo se na posao!

Kada čujete riječ "vještac" (wizard), što je prva stvar koja vam padne na pamet? Vjerojatno Harry Potter ili Gospodar prstenova, zar ne? Važno je imati na umu da je tu riječ o popularnoj kulturi koja nema činjeničnu osnovu. No nemojte me shvatiti krivo; pročitala sam sasvim dovoljno dijelova Harrya Pottera i gotovo sva djela od Tolkiena. Međutim, svjesna sam da romani ovog tipa (i njihove filmske adaptacije) nisu najbolji izvori "okultnih" i "vještičjih" informacija. Upravo sam zbog toga odlučila napisati ovaj post. Postoji previše nedoumica po pitanju pojmova "vještica" (witch), "vještac" (warlock) i "čarobnjak" (wizard). Nadam se da ćete do kraja posta znati razliku između njih, razumjeti što ovi pojmovi zapravo znače i zašto su njihovi odrazi u popularnoj kulturi krivi.

Možda se pitate što ovo radi na paganskom blogu. Odgovor je jednostavan. Vještičarstvo je usko povezano s paganizmom (iako svi pagani nužno ne prakticiraju vještičarstvo). Ne biste mi vjerovali kada bih vam rekla koliko me ljudi do sada pitalo kako se može postati vješticom/čarobnjakom, ili su tvrdili da su muški pagani/wiccani čarobnjaci/vještaci. Naprosto je previše zbrke. Stoga ću pokušati malo razjasniti stvari. :)

Vještice (eng. witches)

Albrecht Dürer - Witch Riding on a

Goat (cca. 1500/1501.g.)

Stereotipni prikaz vještice kao stare babe koja nanosi zlo je stara izmišljotina srednjeg vijeka i reinvencija 20. stoljeća. Ako pogledate unatrag, vještice, spiritisti, proroci i drugi slični njima su obično bili prikazivani (u likovnoj umjetnosti i literaturi) kao žene, makar je njihova doba rijetko, ako ikada, bila istaknuta. U staroj Grčkoj i antici uopće, proroci (odnosno proročice) i duhovni mediji su uglavnom bile lijepe mlade žene koje su trebale biti čedne (tj. djevice). Njihova nevinost je bila jedna od stvari koja je omogućavala bogovima da govore kroz njih. Čak i srednjovjekovna umjetnost prikazuje vještice kao mlade, lijepe žene.

I onda je došao lov na vještice. Z vrijeme "gorućih vremena" (vrijeme spaljivanja vještica; 15.-18.st.), razvio se prikaz vještice kao stare, zle babetine koja štuje sotonu (iako su neka likovna djela i poneki propagandni materijali i dalje ponekad prikazivali vještice kao mlade, ali nimalo manje zle). Upravo je ovo omogućilo razvoj stereotipa kojeg danas poznajemo. Samo se sjetite Shakesepareovog Macbetha i njegovih triju vještice ("Double, double, toil and trouble..."). Ovakvi groteskni prikazi vještica su se nastavili još neko vrijeme, ali su postajali sve manje i manje užasavajući kako su progoni vještica jenjavali. No, ovo ne znači da su vještice nestale iz literature i likovne umjetnosti. I dalje su bile prisutne u svojem babskom obliku kao što su i danas.

U 19. stoljeću, umjetnost je bila obogaćena romantizmom - likovni pokret koji je htio ublažiti izgled modernog, industrijskog svijeta. Zbog toga su se romantičari fokusirali na mitologiju i folklor (s natruhom srednjovjekovne ideologije). Estetika im je bila iznimno važna pa su stoga čak i vještice prikazivali kao zanosne mlade žene u svojoj umjetnosti.

Luis Ricardo Falero - The Witches'
Sabbath (1880.g.)

George Wilson - The Spring Witch (cca. 1880.g.)

Nakon ovoga više nije bilo pravila ili konvencija koji su se ticali prikaza vještica. Neki su se držali srednjovjekovnih prikaza, drugi su prihvatili romantičarsku viziju i, do 20./21. stoljeća, razvio se i prikaz "seksi vještice". Koji je onda prikaz vještica ispravan?

Odgovor glasi: niti jedan. Fizički izgled vještice nema veze sa značenjem ove riječi. Engleski pojam witch ima iste korijene kao i riječ wicca. Obje su došle od anglosaksonske riječi wicca (m.r.)/wicce (ž.r.) što znači "mudar/mudra". Također se mogu povezati sa staroengleskim riječima wit/witt (razumijevanje, intelekt, smisao, znanje, svjesnost, svijest) i wittan (znati). Riječi wicca i wicce su kasnije bile ukomponirane u staroengleski i počele su označavati magičare i čarobnjake (s tim da se wicce odnosi na žensku magičarku/čarobnicu). Nakon toga su se ideje zlobe i štovanja sotone uvukle u značenje ovih riječi. Stoga je riječ wiccian značila "prakticirati vještičarstvo" i može se usporediti sa starim njemačkim pojmovima wikken/wicken koji znači "koristiti vještičarstvo".

Hrvatska riječ vještica dolazi od pridjeva "vješt" (koji ima prakse, umije, poznaje, razumije se u što) i direktno je povezana s pravom ulogom vještica koje su originalno bile samo mudre žene/muškarci koji su obično imali posebna znanja o bilju i načinima korištenja istih (za detalje pogledajte post "Samotnjaci vs. koveni").

Shvaćate osnovnu bit pa vas neću više gnjaviti s etimologijom. :) Glavna poanta svega ovoga jest da je poimanje vještica koje imamo danas samo društveni konstrukt i da nema paralela sa stvarnim svijetom. Izričita povezanost među riječima "vještica" i "magija" i implikacija da su vještice žene (i to zle) su nastale tek u srednjem vijeku. Mislim da su se naši svjetonazori bitno promijenili od tada te da možemo zanemariti ovakve staromodne tvrdnje.

Još jedna pogrešna interpretacija jest da su "vještaci" (eng. warlocks) muške ekvivalente vještica. Hajdemo onda i to razjasniti.

Vještaci (eng. warlocks)

Hrvatska riječ "vještac" ima iste korijene kao i riječ "vještica" (u pridjevu "vješt"). To nije potrebno detaljno objašnjenje, ali je i te kako važno istaknuti definiciju ovog izraza u hrvatskim rječnicima gdje stoji da je vještac "star i zao čovjek". No, hrvatski jezik također ne pravi razliku između engleskih pojmova warlock (čita se /vorlok/) i wizard jer je za oba izraza prikladan prijevod riječ "čarobnjak". Za definiciju čarobnjaka u rječnicima stoji da je to osoba koja "ima moć da izvodi radnje koje nisu moguće po zakonima prirode". Ipak, s obzirom na povijest engleskih izraza o kojoj ću sad reći nešto više, smatram da je "vještac" prikladniji prijevod za riječ warlock, a "čarobnjak" za riječ wizard. Dakle, sve što slijedi se odnosi na engleski izraz warlock koji je sporan u engleskom jeziku.

Pojam koji se danas koristi (koji završava na -ck) dolazi iz škotskog jezika i znači upravo ono što mislite da znači - muška ekvivalenta vještice. No ovo nije pravo značenje riječi warlock. Njezino pravo značenje se može naći još u staroengleskoj riječi waerloga koja znači "izdajica, lažljivac, neprijatelj, vrag". Radi se zapravo o složenici koju tvore dvije manje riječi: waer (vjera/povjerenje, vjernost, sporazum, savez) i leogan (lagati). Ukratko, originalno značenje ove riječi jest "osoba koja krši zakletve" (eng. oath breaker) Kakve ovo ima veze s vješticama? Pa, moguće čak i u 11. stoljeću, engleski pojam se često odnosio na vraga (ili na osobu koja se ponaša kao vrag). U 14. stoljeću, ova je poveznica bila iskrivljena i time se stvorilo novo značenje - osoba koja ima savez s vragom. Sama imenica warlock skupa s njezinom popularnom definicijom (muška vještica tj. vještac na hrvatskom) nije bila prihvaćena sve to 1560-ih. A prisjetite se da je ovo ujedno i početno razdoblje progona vještica. Pošto su vještice tada (krivo) bile povezane s vragom, a isto se mislilo i za vještace (warlocks), stvorena je "logična" poveznica pa se "vještace" (warlocks) poistovjetilo s vješticama. Još jedna zanimljiva činjenica jest da je ovaj novi pojam bio toliko dobro prihvaćen da se čak u doba inkvizicije kao warlocka (uvjetno rečeno vještaca) imenovalo one vještice koje bi pod mučenjem dale inkvizitorima imena drugih vještica.

Očito je da moderne vještice, Wiccani i Pagani ne koriste engleski pojam warlock, pa tako ni pojam "vještac". U principu imenica "vještica" ne poznaje drugog roda i obuhvaća osobe muškog i ženskog spola.

(c) Andrey Shishkin - Forest King

Čarobnjaci (eng. wizards)

Naspram vještacima i asocijacijama koje prate englesku ekvivalentu ove riječi, čarobnjaci (eng. wizards) bi trebali imati puno ljepše asocijacije. Engleska riječ wizard dolazi od stare engleske riječi wys/wis što znači "mudar" (eng. wise) pa stoga označava mudrog čovjeka. Sama riječ wizard se počela upotrebljavati u 15. stoljeću, a tada je doslovno značila "mudar muškarac". S vremenom se njezino značenje proširilo pa se tako wizard odnosilo i na alkemičare,  vješte i mudre seoske ljude, čarobnjake/vračeve, vještice itd. Tako se razvilo mišljenje da su čarobnjaci naprosto muški magičari (a ponekad čak i muške vještice). U 16. stoljeću, smatralo se da čarobnjaci također prakticiraju proricanje i magiju (tj. da prizivaju zle duhove). Pretpostavljam da su se ove negativne konotacije odjednom pojavile upravo zbog progona vještice koji još traje u ovo vrijeme. Zapravo, tada se smatralo da je sve što je iole povezano s vješticama (koje se smatralo prvotnim problemom) zlo i povezano s vragom. Sa Zakonima o vještičarstvu, proricanje, magija, bajanje, izrada amuleta pa čak i traženje izgubljenih/ukradenih predmeta je postalo ilegalno jer se smatralo šarlatanstvom. Da pojasnim, posljednji od ovih zakona je bio zasnovan na teoriji da vještice ne postoje i da osoba koja se naziva vješticom je ništa drugo nego lažljivac i prevarant. Uz ovo, Crkva je smatrala da su proricanje i magija djelo sotone. I tako su svi "čarobnjaci" koji su bili optuženi za prakticiranje zle magije bili osuđeni jednako kao i vještice. No kroz cijelo 16. i 17. stoljeće, razlikovali sve dvije vrste čarobnjaka - seoski čarobnjak/magičar (koji je radio većinu poviše navedenih stvari) i visokog maga kojeg je više zanimala alkemija, neoplatonska filozofija, proučavanje grimorija i bilo koji drugi oblik intelektualnog rada. Upravo je iz ovog posljednjeg tipa proizašla moderna vizija čarobnjaka kao starog, sijedog, bradatog, naboranog čovjeka u dugim haljama. 

Većina negativnih konotacija ove riječi se zagubila negdje u povijesti, ali su se povezanost s magijom i fizički opis zadržali. Ipak, ovi ostaci se zapravo mogu povezati s originalnom etimologijom riječi wizard jer se mudrost naposljetku i povezuje sa starošću.

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Nadam se da sada razumijete kako i zašto su nastali stereotipi koje danas imamo o vješticama, vještacima i čarobnjacima. Kao što sam rekla na početku posta, popularna kultura je zabavna, ali se njezinim interpretacijama ne bi uvijek smjelo slijepo vjerovati. Ponekad je potrebno pogledati unatrag stoljećima da bi se saznalo što neke stvari zapravo znače.

Do sljedećeg puta,

vaša Witch's Cat

Wizards, Warlocks and Witches

(c) Lucas Graciano - Gandalf the Grey 

When I say "wizard", what's the first thing that you think of? Probably Harry Potter and Lord of the Rings, right? It's important to keep in mind that this is pop culture and it isn't really based on many facts. Don't get me wrong, I have read my fair share of Harry Potter books and have read almost everything by Tolkien. Nevertheless, I am aware that fantasy novels (and their big screen adaptations) aren't the best place to get "occult" and "witchy" knowledge. And that's why I decided to write this post. There is too much confusion about the terms "witch", "warlock" and "wizard". Hopefully, by the end of this post, you will know the difference, understand what these words really mean and why their depictions in pop culture are so wrong.

You might be asking yourself what this is doing on a Pagan blog. The answer is quite simple. Witchcraft is closely linked to Paganism (although not all Pagans practice witchcraft). You wouldn't believe how many people have asked me how they can become a witch/wizard or have claimed that male Pagans/Wiccans are wizards/warlocks. There's just too much confusion. So I'll try to clear things up a bit. :)

Witches

Albrecht Dürer - Witch Riding on a

Goat (cca. 1500/1501)

The stereotype of a witch as an old hag who does evil is an invention of the medieval times and a reinvention of the 20th century. If you look back in time, witches, mediums, spiritualists, oracles etc. were usually depicted (in both visual art and literature) as women, but their age was rarely, if ever specified. In ancient Greece and antiquity in general, oracles and mediums were usually young beautiful women who had to be chaste (i.e. virgins). Their purity was one of the things that enabled the gods to speak through them. Even medieval art depicts witches as pretty, young women. 

And then came the witch craze. During the "burning times" (15th-18th century), the image of the witch as an old, evil, Satan-worshiping hag developed (though some artwork and propaganda material still depicted witches as young, but no less evil) slowly giving rise to the stereotype that we have today. Just remember Shakespeare's Macbeth and his three witches ("Double, double, toil and trouble..."). These grotesque depictions of witches continued for quite some time, but became less horrific as the witch hunts died down. Though this doesn't mean that witches disappeared from literature or art. They were still present in their hag form as they are today.

In the 19th century, art was enriched by Romanticism - an artistic movement that wanted to soften the edges of the modern, industrial world. This is why all Romanticists focused on mythology and folklore (with a hint of medieval ideology). Aesthetics were of great importance to these artists so witches are always captivating in their artwork. 

Luis Ricardo Falero - The Witches'
Sabbath (1880)

George Wilson - The Spring Witch (cca. 1880)

After this, there were no more rules or conventions as to how a witch should be depicted. Some stuck to the medieval depictions, other adopted the romanticist versions and by the 20th and 21st century, the "sexy witch" also developed. So which image of the witch is correct?

The answer is - not a single one. The physical appearance of a witch has nothing to do with the meaning of the word. The term "witch" has the same roots as the word "Wicca". Both words came from the Anglo-Saxon words wicca (m.)/wicce (f.) which mean "wise one". They can also be traced back to the Old English words wit/witt (understanding, intellect, sense; knowledge, consciousness, conscience) and wittan (to know). The words wicca and wicce were later incorporated into Old English and started to refer to magicians and sorcerers (wicce referring to a female magician/sorcerer). Later on, ideas of malevolence and Satan-worship were included in the meaning of these words. The word wiccian meant "to practice witchcraft" and can be compared to the Low German terms wikken/wicken meaning "to use witchcraft". You get the picture. :) I won't bore you with etymology anymore. But the main point here is that witches as we see them nowadays are a social construct and do not have parallels in real life. Witches were originally just wise women/men who usually had special knowledge of herbs and their uses (for more details, have a look at the post "Solitaries vs. Covens"). The explicit connection between the words "witch" and "magic" and the implication of a witch being a woman (and an evil one at that) came to exist in the Middle Ages. I think our worldview has changed quite a bit since then and that we can disregard such old-fashioned assertions.

Another misinterpretation is that warlocks are male equivalents of witches. So let's sort that out too. 

Warlocks

The exact term we use today (ending in -ck) comes from Scottish, actually and means precisely what you think it means - the male equivalent of a witch. But this is not the true meaning of the word warlock. The meaning of this word can be traced back to the Old English waerloga meaning traitor, liar, enemy, devil. This is actually a compound word made up of two smaller words: waer (faith, fidelity, agreement, covenant) and leogan (to lie). Basically, the original meaning of the word is oath-breaker. So how does this have any connection to witches? Well, possibly as early as the 11th century, the term oath-breaker was commonly related to the devil (or a person behaving like a devil). In the 14th century, this connection was twisted and a new meaning was formed - one in league with the devil. The exact noun "warlock" along with its popular definition (male witch) wasn't accepted until the 1560s which, if you recall, was the beginning of the witch craze. Since witches were (falsely) connected to the devil back then and so was the term warlock, a "logical" connection was made and "warlock" was equated with "witch". Another interesting fact is that this new term was adopted so well that, during the witch hunts, a person that gave the inquisition the names of other witches under torture was labeled a warlock (i.e. traitor).

Obviously enough, modern witches, Wiccans and Pagans do not use the term "warlock".

(c) Andrey Shishkin - Forest King

Wizards

As opposed to warlocks, wizards should call to mind much more pleasant images. The word "wizard" comes from the Late Middle English word wys/wis meaning "wise" and therefore refers to a wise man. The actual word "wizard" came into use in the 15th century and literally meant "wise man". Over time, its meaning got broader and soon enough, "wizard" also referred to alchemists, cunningmen, sorcerers, witches and so on. This is how wizards began to be thought of as male magicians or sorcerers (and sometimes even male witches). In the 16th century, wizards were also presumed to practice fortunetelling and magic (e.g. conjure up evil spirits). I'm guessing that these negative connotations suddenly appeared because of the witch craze (the 16th century is the beginning of the persecutions, after all) so anything even remotely connected to witches, who were thought of as the "initial problem", had to be evil and connected to the devil. With the Witchcraft Acts, fortunetelling, magic, spellwork, making charms and even finding lost/stolen objects became illegal because it was though of as charlatanism. To elaborate, the last of these laws was based on the theory that witches didn't exist and that anyone claiming to be one was a liar and a charlatan. In addition to this, the Church thought that divination and sorcery were works of the devil. And so all "wizards" accused of practicing harmful magic and were trialed as witches. But all through the 16th and 17th century, two types of wizards were discerned - the village wizard/magician (who did most of the above) and the high magician who was more interested in alchemy, Neoplatonic philosophy, reading grimoires and basically intellectual work. It is precisely from this figure that the modern image of the wizard (old, grey-haired, bearded, wrinkled, robed) comes from.

Most of the negative connotations of this word got lost in history, but the connection to magic and the physical description managed to survive. Still, these remnants can actually be connected to the original etymology of the word "wizard" because wisdom is generally associated with old age.

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Hopefully you now understand how and why the stereotypes of witches, warlocks and wizards we have today came to exist. Like I said at the beginning of this post, pop culture is fun, but its renditions shouldn't always be blindly trusted. It's sometimes necessary to look back in time to find out what some things really mean.

Until next time. Yours,

Witch's Cat

Broomsticks (Can Witches Really Fly?)

Witches riding brooms - the ultimate stereotype, isn't it? People have seen this image so many times that they've simply come to accept it and don't even think to question its historical background or verity. So, thanks to pop culture, this image has become synonymous with witches. And to be honest, I don't even mind it that much; I actually find it cute. Despite this, I still believe that the historical and religious background of the broomstick and its deep connection with Paganism and witchcraft has to be explained. 

I have mentioned the broomstick in several previous posts, including the one on ritual tools and on the subject of Handfasting i.e. marriage (which can be found in the post on crossing rituals).

In this post, I'll try to explain what role the broom plays in Paganism and witchcraft (after all, this is a Pagan/Wiccan blog), explain its symbolism and uses in modern rituals, but mainly, I will try to confront the stereotype of flying witches head on.

Terminology: Broomstick/Besom

The Broom plant/shrub
(lat. cytisus scoparius)

Another common name for the broomstick is a besom (pronounced /'bi:zm/). This term was used to name any sweeping tool. The term "broomstick", on the other hand, got its name from the Scottish Broom plant (lat. cytisus scoparius) from which the broomstick's handle was made. The actual sweeping part (a.k.a. the bristles) was made up of twigs and/or leaves which were tied to one end of the handle. The besom also differs in material since the use of the broom plant wasn't mandatory; one could also make a besom out of heather or birch and the bristles could have been straw, dried herbs or any old twigs. According to some, a traditional besom broom nowadays has a hazel-wood handle (sometimes an ash handle) and birch twigs for bristles (the two are usually tied together with willow branches). The broom can be decorated with leaves and flowers and often other objects like crystals, symbols or ribbons (although the latter three are a slightly newer practice). Of course, since the two objects were similar in appearance and were used for the same purposes, the distinctions became blurred with time and the two terms started to be used interchangeably.

I won't go into detail on how modern besoms are made but I will try to put it as simply as I can. The practitioner is supposed to go into the forest and find the materials him/herself. I already noted these before so I won't repeat myself. Anyway, after finding the appropriate trees/shrubs/plants in general, the practitioner is supposed to thank them before cutting off anything and leave a gift of thanks (a small coin, crystal, rock, something of meaning to them etc.). It is very simple to make the broom itself. You can find simple instructions here. After the broom is made, it has to be consecrated and cleansed before it can be used in the circle. A very witchy tradition includes leaving the broom on a crossroads to "let out" any excess energy (often on a night of the full Moon). Of course, all of this is optional now what with so many hobby stores, markets and eBay selling broomsticks for small amounts of money. All the same, I recommend you make your own tools whenever possible since this will add to the tool's (and ritual's) energy.

Symbolism and Superstition

The broom is usually connected to women and the household (since women were and still usually are the ones who do the chores). The bond between women and their beloved brooms was so strong at one point that the broomstick was used almost as a symbol for the woman alone; it could be left standing against the door of her house when the woman of the house wasn't in (guarding it in a way), or perhaps stuck in the chimney so it could be visible from the outside if the woman lived in a cottage. This is where the myth of witches flying out of their chimneys comes from. This myth was first mentioned in a book entitled Flagellum Maleficarum by Petrus Mramor in 1460.

Francesco Parmigianino -

A Witch Riding on a Phallus

(about 1530)

But the symbolism of the broom is much deeper than this. It is essentially a fertility symbol in which the handle represents the male phallus and the bristles represent the vulva. The binding of the two parts is an obvious metaphor of sexual relations and fertility in general. This is why brooms were often used in marriage ceremonies and are used to this day in such a manner in many Pagan communities. I will elaborate on this a bit later on, but I would like to stick to the symbolism for now. This sexual symbolism of the broomstick played an important role in Pagan rites, as it still does. Fertility was celebrated because Pagans relied on the fertility of the land and were also thankful for their own fertility and the miracle of life. The broom epitomized these basic acknowledgements wonderfully. This phallic symbolism of the broomstick is more than obvious in an engraving by a Mannerist artist called Parmigianino which literally depicts a witch flying on a large phallus.

Francisco de Goya -
Pretty Teacher (1797)

I would like to note right at the beginning that the oldest descriptions and depictions of witches riding broomsticks are slightly different than what we are used to today. Namely, the bristles of the broom had to be in front of the witch as is shown in Goya's famous engraving. Hollywood switched this around probably because of aesthetic reasons. It was simply more logical for the bristles which represent the female sex organ to be placed closer to the vulva. Also, other sources state that broomsticks weren't the only instruments which witches supposedly rode. Interesting variations on the topic were hobby horses. Of course, the hobby horse's head is the equivalent of the bristles of a broomstick (at least visually). Since the horse's head was always placed in the front, so were the bristles. This was probably much easier for balance too.

Doreen Valiente points out something linguistically significant. This sexual symbolism of the broom was also reflected on the English language into which the term "broom" was used in slang to refer to the female sexual organ. It goes without saying that the term "broom handle" was equally used to represent a dildo. To "have a brush", logically enough, meant "to have sex".

While we are still on the topic of sex, the broomstick could also be connected to woman-on-top sex positions (that is, if the broom is seen as a primarily phallic symbol). This position is respected among Pagans because it is thought to be empowering for women. It is for this exact same reason that it is dislike in Catholicism (in fact, Adam's first wife Lilith refused to have intercourse while lying down; she insisted on being on top. This is why God condemned her and created Eve who was a good, obedient wife). 

Of course, the symbolism isn't all sexual. It can be related to marriage and fertility of any kind, as I have previously explained. Much of this symbolism turned into superstition so, in some countries, it is bad luck to step over a broom or to drop a broom so it falls flat on the floor. It is also thought to be bad luck to bring an old broom into a new house (as the broom is a symbol of sweeping out dirt, both of a physical as well as mental and emotional nature). In some areas, it's also thought that if an unmarried woman steps over a broom that she will have a child out of wedlock.

Since the broomstick was symbolic of cleansing, it was often used as a sort of talisman for warding off evil spirits. If this was the case, it would be hanged in the hallway just in front of the door with the bristles facing towards the door itself.

Some scholars compare the broom to the arbor mundi (Tree of Life), such as the Germanic Yggdrasil (you can look up this term in the glossary). The bristles of the broom were supposed to represent its deep roots.

Of course, there are many other myths and superstitions regarding broomsticks, their magical powers and witches. The most famous one is surely the myth of covens flying on brooms to their Sabbath meetings.

"Flight Schedule" - the History behind the Myth

Witches didn't really fly on broomsticks contrary to popular beliefs and despite what many engravings, paintings, ecclesiastical texts and folk tales say. This myth has become widely accepted in modern times and, as a result, witches are almost immediately connected with brooms. An interesting fact is that these myths don't only mention witches riding on brooms, but also on pitchforks, shovels, poles and a large range of animals. The act of flying on the broom itself is called transvection.

Ulrich Molitor - De Lamiis
(1489)

The earliest depiction of this myth is thought to be Ulrich Molitor's engraving called De Lamiis in which three witches are depicted riding a normal branch (not even a broom!) and have animal heads which gives an additional supernatural element to the whole scene. Earlier depictions couldn't have really existed because the earliest confession of flight was given in 1453 by Guillaume Edelin who was the Prior of St Germain-en-Laye near Paris (notice that we're dealing with a man!). The earliest mention of witches' flight at all was in 1440 in the poem "Le Champion des Dames" by the French author Martin le Franc.

It's worth noting that even before this confession and poem, the myth of witch's flight was present among the masses, but in slightly different forms. As early as the 14th century, there are mentions of a dancing mania spreading throughout Europe. The symptoms of this mania included dancing until one dropped from exhaustion, foaming from the mouth, speaking on tongues and so on. Now this didn't just occur without any trigger at all. There is a completely valid reason for this, and yes, it is connected to witches' flights. Let me elaborate on this. :)

Ergot - Deadly or Ecstatic? 

Up to the 15th century (when the Witch trials began), bread consumed by the majority of people was made from rye and not wheat like the one we are used to. The problem with rye was that it often got contaminated by a disease called ergot, which is a type of fungus. Rye was also much more easily cultivated than wheat and thus easier and cheaper to obtain. But even if you didn't eat rye in this period, you weren't safe because ergot could easily affect other grains as well (including wheat). The disease which it caused was named ergotism, but the cause itself wasn't discovered until about 1670 by Dr Thuillier. It was precisely ergotism and its hallucinogenic effects which could have caused this above mentioned "dancing mania".

Jean Francois Badoureau - Hysterical
Epilepsy (cca. 1876)

You can find a detailed history of ergot here, but I will simplify things for you. Basically, this fungus replaced rye grains. It was relatively similar in color and was so frequent that people didn't even notice the difference. Surely, it didn't take long for people to discover the symptoms that this fungi had and to learn to manipulate them. In larger doses, ergot was deadly (an obvious enough symptom), but people soon discovered that in small doses and if consumed correctly, ergot could be used as a drug, and a very powerful hallucinogenic one at that. Even when consumed orally in small doses, ergot could be deadly, but people obviously liked experimenting with drugs even back then and soon discovered that, when consumed through the skin, it produced powerful hallucinations but without any bad side-effects such as nausea, vomiting and skin irritations (and in worst-case scenarios - death). Other symptoms included convulsions (which were often labeled as demonic possessions and similar phenomena) and even gangrenous symptoms.

It just so happens that the skin areas of the human body most sensitive to these drugs were the armpits and, for women, the genitals (some also include the soles of the feet and the forehead). The armpits were especially receptive because of the many sweat glands which humans have there, and the female genitalia was even more receptive because of the mucus membranes which are very thin. When applied to these areas, the drug would soon enter the blood stream and "do its job". 

Women were especially sensitive to this drug because of the aforementioned reason. This is partly why men were not depicted as witches (or accused as such) even half as much as women. Obviously women found it useful to rub the drugs onto their genitals using an instrument which was usually - a broomstick handle! Now imagine a woman doing this...doesn't it somewhat remind you of the many pictures of flying witches? 

Of course, ergot couldn't simply be applied by rubbing rye on yourself. Like any drug, it had to be processed. This is how "flying ointments" came to be.

Flying Ointment

The most frequent depictions of witches are those in which they are riding broomsticks or rubbing something on themselves (or even being rubbed by someone else). It was supposed that they rubbed flying ointment to enable them to fly to their coven's meeting place. Folk stories (and sometimes even ecclesiastical documents) claim that that the main ingredient of this ointment was fat boiled off unbaptized babies, which wasn't even close to the truth. If anything was used, it was probably pig fat, as is used today for the base/carrier of many ointments and often even for culinary purposes. 

Other ingredients were basically hallucinogenic plants such as aconite (a.k.a. monkshood, wolfsbane), hemlock (a.k.a. cowbane) and belladonna (a.k.a. nightshade). Some sources add Jimsonweed (lat. Datura stramonium) and mandrake, Of course, we can't forget ergot. Many supposed recipes exist for preparing this flying ointment. The following ones can be found in The Witch Book written by Raymond Buckland.

Warning: I do not recommend trying to make the ointments or using them. The ingredients are dangerous and may cause severe side-effects. The following information is intended only for informative purposes.

One recipe from Gardner's Book of Shadows states that the ingredients needed are:

• 100g lard
• 5g hashish
• a handful of hemp flower
• a handful of poppy flower
• a pinch of powdered hellbore root
• a pinch of grounded sunflower seeds

The instructions say: "To be rubbed into the skin behind the ears, on the neck along the line of the carotid arteries, in the armpits, to the left of the sympathetic nerve, in the back of the knees, on the soles of the feet, and in the bend of the arms."

Another recipe recommends the following ingredients:

• 3g annamthol
• 50g extract of opium
• 30g extract of betel
• 6g cinquefoil
• 15g henbane
• 15g belladonna
• 15g hemlock, ordinary
• 250g Indian Hemp (Cannabis Indica)
• 5g cantharides
• Gum tragacanth
• Powdered sugar

The ingredients should be mixed with oil (e.g. pure olive oil) or mixed in with cream (e.g. lanoline) and applied only externally!

A more modern recipe reads:

• 1 jar hand cream
• 1 tsp vegetable oil
• 2 tsp belladonna
• 3 drops liquid detergent
• 2 tsp wolfbane juice

These ingredients can then be mixed with a perfume of the user's choice.

I have to stress once more that these recipes are intended ONLY for informative purposes and that anyone who wants to try them answers for their own actions. I cannot guarantee that any of the recipes are safe.

But to get back to the topic, Gerald Gardner believes that these ointments were used to preserve temperature. This was necessary as witches are believed to have performed their rituals nude and thus needed to keep warm until arriving at their meeting place (and or course stay warm during the ritual itself).

It seems to me that the previous reasons are more feasible. Indeed, the hallucinations which these hallucinogenic plants produced have been described as causing a flying sensation, as if the limbs were floating (and often the whole body as well). Let us say a few more words about this flying sensation and some metaphorical interpretations of it.

Did Witches Really Fly?

The answer to this question would be: "No, not physically". The flying was, as we have determined, a product of hallucinations caused by various hallucinogenic plants which were combined into ointments and smeared onto certain parts of the body. The first stories regarding flight date back to the early 1400s. These stories say nothing of drug consummation, but rather of dreams in which the dreamer flew. The morning-after retellings of these dreams often included descriptions of meetings in far-away places. 

The interpretation of the broomstick being an astral vehicle and the ointments being catalysts is also an important theory. Once more, this doesn't imply that witches actually flew, but astral travel is included in this theory. Astral travel marks a switch in consciousness which is often thought to lead the practitioner into other states of being/realities/dimensions. 

Astral travel and ecstasy techniques were present in Shamanic practices which supposedly preceded the ones we have been talking about up to now. It is well known that Shamans didn't use brooms to achieve these ecstatic moments, but rather rode hobby horses (as did witches). Horse riding itself was a symbol of strength, endurance and survival. Shamans were wise men whose primary duty was to travel to other world (in this case on metaphorical horseback) and bring back information and news. As Mircea Eliade, an expert on the subject of Shamanism says, this was a symbolic riding which expressed the leaving of ones body; the shaman's "mystical death". Another example such theriomorphic (animal-shaped) "vehicles" can be found in rituals of Altaic Shamans. One ritual includes a figure (a sort of a scarecrow) of a goose which is placed in front of the Shaman's tent (called a yurt). The Shaman is supposed to straddle the goose, flap his arms as if he is flying and sing songs about flight. This in itself was another ecstasy technique and very similar to the witches' "flight". It's worth noting that Shamans didn't use flying ointments for these rituals. A part of the Shamanic tradition is smoking peyote (a type of cactus which also has psychoactive effects).

Gwydion, another interesting author in the field of magic, Paganism and similar topics, claims that these depictions of witches flying were simply proof of a misunderstanding of a magical/poetic code which indicated Shamanic ecstasy and a visionary flight of the soul. Such "flights" (or better said dances and rituals) were methods of coming into contact with the Divine and achieving trance and ecstasy.

Another interpretation of this flight seems to be ritualistic and a bit more literal. According to some stories, witches used to perform fertility rituals with brooms in which they rode them as horses, danced, sung and celebrated fertility altogether. It could be possible that all the dancing and jumping in the air was confused for flight at some point or other or even that the witches, if under the influence of drugs, actually felt as if they were flying while performing these rituals. This leads us to our next topic.

Fertility rites

As I have said, Witches and Pagans have always celebrated fertility, be it human fertility or the fertility of the land. There are stories which speak of witches going into the field and ecstatically dancing on brooms/hobby horses/various other objects and jumping in the air. It was supposed that the higher you could jump, the taller the crops would grow. This was obviously a type of sympathetic magic.

Douglas Hill proposes that this was also a form of the previously mentioned psychonavigation and ecstasy techniques.

Ritual Uses of the Broom

The earliest use of brooms in rituals was clearing the ritual space. Brooms can be used for this purpose even today, but they are usually seen more as a tool for energetic cleansing than for actual physical cleaning. In the Pagan community, they have become a symbol of cleansing, banishing, getting rid of the old (and often "dirty") and making room for the new (usually perceived as "clean"). This is why many witches prepare their ritual space by sweeping it with a broom beforehand, or mark the circle by walking around its perimeter with the broom (bristles facing towards the floor and sort of tracing the circle even though they don't actually have to even touch the floor). When doing this a visualization is also commonly included in which the practitioner envisions the broom leaving a white/blue shining line on the floor as it is led around the circle. I think that this video describes the broom's ritual use very nicely, so I recommend you have a look. :)

In this scenario, the broomstick partly replaces the athamé (as the athamé is usually used to mark the sacred circle). It can replace it in another instance as well; when entering/exiting the circle. It may occur sometimes that someone has to exit the circle (and then reenter it) during a group ritual. This person can't just step out because that would cause great energetic disbalance. When using an athame, this practitioner would draw a door on the perimeter of the circle and, after stepping out, redraw it (but in reverse; like zipping it up with the athamé). When using a broom, all that is needed to do is "sweep away" a part of the blue/white light that was visualized and then "draw it back in" after stepping out of the circle. Of course, this process should be repeated when attempting to reenter the circle.

Just as the broom used to be used as a protective symbol in the house, it can be used with this intention in the circle (to ward off any negative energies/entities). 

What with the broomstick being a fertility symbol, it is often used in marriage ceremonies which are called Handfastings. This is one of so called Crossing rituals which mark a turning point in the person's life. In this case, it is the beginning of a new chapter with a loving partner. To symbolize the union itself, the young couple jumps over a broom (often while holding hands). Some see this as a fertility rite in itself because, by doing so, the couple practically asks for the marriage to be fruitful (i.e. for them to have children). This tradition has survived even to this day (even outside of Pagan communities). For example, young couples in Wales often enter their new home by jumping over a broom which is placed on the threshold (although they must not touch it or else the marriage will not be seen as valid). The opposite of a Handfasting is a Handparting ceremony. Marriage isn't seen as irreversible in Paganism (in fact, the couple vow to stay together as long as they love each other, not until "death do us part"). In order to annul the marriage, the couple has to jump/step backwards over a broom. 

Nowadays, the broomstick's primary use for rubbing ointments onto the skin is long gone because much safer and simpler methods of achieving transic states have been discovered. I have to emphasize that using drugs in modern times has become a very rare practice in Paganism, even though drugs as such have been used in many many cultures and ages of humanity to achieve enlightening states and  help the practitioner on their path towards the Divine. So you don't have to worry about anyone trying to make you use drugs during rituals; no one is forced to do anything!

If I were to sum up this whole post and answer the question I put as its title, I would say the following: Witches cannot rally fly. Even though some perceived their activities as flying, what probably happened in reality was that the witches gathered to celebrate a festival (often centered around fertility) on the night of a full Moon in the middle of a field. They would cast a circle, smear ointment onto a broom or hobby horse and ride it until the ointment got into their blood flow. Once they achieved an ecstatic stage, they would dance and sing and raise the energy of the ritual until at a peak and, in the process, achieve a spiritual uplifting and astral projection.

And there you have it. Hopefully you learnt something new and interesting because I definitely did while doing my research. :) 

This was my third post for the Pagan Blog Project and the next one isn't far away. So until next time. Yours,

Witch's Cat