Hecate - Goddess of Witchcraft

William Blake - The Night of Enitharmon's Joy
or The Triple Hecate, 1795

Although Hecate is called the goddess of witchcraft, she is much more than this. Her mythology, cults and role are definitely worth talking about as they all played an important role in ancient times. It is said that she could alter the fate of human beings by either giving wealth or taking it away, giving victory or causing death, giving good luck to hunters and sailors or, if they angered her, causing them bad luck and also by governing over the prosperity of both youth and cattle.

I will try to write a sort of biography of this goddess even though some may find it over-simplified. I won't mention ALL of the theories or interpretations but rather the most important or widely-accepted ones. Nevertheless, I hope you will find this post useful. :) If you find it interesting, I recommend you have a look at a wonderful and very professional website called Theoi Greek Mythology where you will find much more information on this deity as well as any part of Greek mythology you can think of and all of this backed up by quotations from classical authors and documents.

The Origins of the Goddess

Hecate (this is the Latin spelling of her name; in Greek it is spelled Hekatê) is believed to originally be a Thracian moon-goddess and not a Greek one. The Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes that lived in Central and Southeastern Europe who had contact with the Greek civilization (though they were supposedly enemies). It seems as though Greece colonized the Thracians at some point in history and this is probably how Hecate and other religious and mythological figures were incorporated into Greek mythology and beliefs.

Her name is thought to have been derived from the female variation of the epithet hekatos (Worker from Afar). It is unclear as to why she was called this, though this adjective was originally ascribed to Apollo with whom she was sometimes connected to. Apollo was an archer god who was said to shoot arrows from afar (he was also the god of sudden death) so his association with the adjective is quite clear. My guess would be that she, as a huntress (who also hunted with arrows) had the same associations as Apollo when it came to this subject. Of course, other theories exist, but this is just the most widely-accepted one.

Hecate's Biography

Birth

The most widely accepted story regarding Hecate's birth is that she was the only child of the Titanes Perses and Asteria. Perses was the Titan god of destruction, while Asteria (called "the Starry Night") was the Titan goddess of oracles, prophecies, the night, astrology, dreams and so on. 

The Titanes in general are pre-Olympian gods, which means that, according to Greek mythology, they ruled over heaven, earth and the underworld before Zeus and the other Olympian gods took everything into their own hands. As Hecate is the child of two Titanes, she herself is a Titan and also predates the Olympian gods.

Her Role in the Gigantomachy

Hecate and the gigante Klytios, Attic

red figure vase, Antiken-museen, Berlin, 

Germany, ca 410 - 400 BC (she is
depicted killing the gigante with her two
torches)

The story of the Gigantomachy is quote complicated, but I will try to sum it up. Two gods in Greek mythology are related to their origin story; these are Uranus (the Sky) and Gaia (the Earth). It is worth mentioning, though, that they were not the first gods. In any case, the pair had several children which are known to us as the Titanes. There are several generations of Titanes and both Perses and Asteria belong to the second generation, which would make Uranus and Gaia their grandparents in a way.

Gaia and Uranus weren't the best couple ever. He imprisoned her children and she sought revenge. She was able to turn the Titanes against Uranus and got the youngest of them, Kronos, to castrated him and thus kill him. In the process, some of his blood fell on the Earth (Gaia) and from it were born the Gigantes (among many others). This war between the Titanes and Uranus is known as the Titanomachy. Of course, the story doesn't end here. Before he died, Uranus, in a way, cursed Kronos by telling him that his children would overthrow him just as he had overthrown his father (Uranus).

Kronos decided to play it safe and imprisoned the Gigantes in Tartarus along with all the others that were a potential threat to his rule. He got even worse and ate all of his children, except one - Zeus. Namely, Kronos' wife Rhea barely managed to save Zeus' life by fooling Kronos into eating a rock wrapped in a blanket in stead of Zeus.

Anyway, when Zeus grew up, he tricked his father into vomiting up his brothers and sisters. He fulfilled Uranus' prophecy by rebelling against Kronos and establishing his own rule on mount Olympus. He basically defeated all the Titanes and trapped them in Tartarus.

Now we finally come to the Gigantomachy mentioned in the subtitle. Gaia wanted to restore the rule of the Titanes and was very angry at Zeus. She thus brought forth the Gigantes and went to war with Zeus and the other Olympian gods. In the end, the Olympians won with the help of Hercules, as another prophecy foresaw. The Gigantomachy was a huge mythological battle and this very very short summary does not do it justice, but it will have to do. Anyway, many gods and other mythological figures took part in it. Among them was Hecate.

Hecate apparently proved her worth in this battle by killing the gigante Clytius. Zeus rewarded her after the battle for being on the side of the Olympians, or rather he didn't take anything away from her. She, as a Titan, had a certain amount of power over the earth, sea, sky and underworld (although this is usually summed up into three realms: earth, sky and the underworld for symbolic purposes, but we'll get to that later). Zeus let her keep this power because she had proven her worth, courage and, above all, loyalty. 

The Rape of Persephone - Hecate as an Infernal Deity

The Return of Persephone, Attic red

figure krater, Metropolitan Museum, 

New York City, USA (Hermes leads
Persephone out of the underworld,
Hecate and Demeter welcome her;
Hecate is the one holding two torches)

According to the myths, Hades (the god of the underworld) fell in love with Persephone (the goddess of the spring) and kidnapped her. Her mother Demeter searched all over for her and was help by none other than Hecate. Once again, this is only a small part of the myth, but it will do for now. While Persephone was yelling out for help as Hades was attempting to rape her/while he was kidnapping her (this differs from myth to myth), Hecate was the only one to hear her screams. Hecate joined Demeter in her search and guided her with her two torches through the dark in an attempt to save her daughter. After they found Persephone, she (Hecate) decided to stay in the underworld with her as her companion.

This is how Hecate became a deity of the underworld, although this myth can only be traced back to the time of the Greek tragedies. In any case, she was in charge of the souls of the deceased; she purified them and helped them make atonement. 

Hercules, Cerberus and Hecate (on the

right), Apulian red figure krater,

Antikensammlungen, Munich, Germany, 

ca 330 - 310 BC

As Hecate lived in the lower world, she developed darker aspects (which are by no means less important or necessarily "evil"; they are just darker but regarded as equally necessary for the balance of the world as any good characteristics any god may possess). She became associated with ghosts and other beings of the underworld (which she supposedly sent to earth during the night). Sometimes she would go along with them and her presence could supposedly be known because dogs would start to howl. Her association with dogs is quite deep as she was usually accompanied by the hound Cerberus who lived in the underworld with her. She also had another dog companion; a black bitch who was actually the Trojan Queen Hekabe (the queen had jumped into the sea after the fall of Troy in the Trojan War or was stoned to death according to some myths, but the gods turned her into a black dog and gave her as a gift to Hecate).

Hecate with a black dog, 

Antiken-sammlung des Archaologischen 

Insituts der Universitat, 

Eberhard-Karls Universitat, 

Tubingen, Germany, 

Attic black figure kylix

As she was very close to Persephone, she became identified with her. Unfortunately, as an infernal deity (a deity of the lower world), many negative associations were developed with her. She came to be seen as malevolent and was said to practice witchcraft by which she controlled the many spirits of the underworld. According to some sources, she had complete control over the lower world and everything in it. 

Since it was believed that spirits haunted crossroads (and Hecate was often with these spirits), she became known as the goddess of crossroads too. 

All of this lead to Hecate being seen as the goddess of the underworld, of the night (as she and the ghosts were thought to come out at night), consequently of ghosts and spirits and the Moon, but also as the goddess of magic and witches. And so she became the Greek "goddess of witchcraft". Also, her association with the Moon is another reason why she is often confused with Persephone.

Medea, Kirke and Gale - Witches and Hecate

There are several myths connecting Hecate to witches and witchcraft (although these are not the only reasons why Hecate is associated with witchcraft).

The first myth is that of the witch Medea who was also a priestess of the goddess. In most stories, it is said that Medea got her magical powers from Hecate. This is logical as Medea dealt with ghosts and spirits (i.e. her magic was necromantic in a way) and Hecate herself was the goddess of the underworld.

Also, according to some myths, both Medea and Kirke were Hecate's daughters (though she is usually said to be a virgin goddess). In fact, she taught both her daughters all she knew about witchcraft, herbs and such (in particular poisonous herbs which were her specialty). Kirke especially followed in her mother's herbologist footsteps. 

As for Gale, she was also a witch that completely lacked self-restraint. This referred to her sexual appetite, but it is not clear whether it also referred to her magic as well. In any case, this angered Hecate who punished her by turning her into a polecat that was from then on her familiar (along with the black dog I mentioned before).

Hecate's connection with witchcraft does not end here. Hesiod explains that she is a nocturnal goddess of witchcraft because of her parentage (Asteria was the goddess of stars and the night and her father's name - Perses - is linguistically connected to both Persephone, the goddess of the underworld, and Perseis, the mother of Kirke and another witch called Aeetes, although this second association is quite blurred as Hecate is also referred to as Perseis, because she has different relations with Aeetes in other myths and so on). Another reason why she is connected to witchcraft is because of her connection to necromancy. This association was inevitable as Hecate was connected to ghosts (and necromancy is the practice of communicating with the dead). And just to repeat this once more, her supposed daughter Medea was thought to practice precisely this kind of magic. It is partially due to this myth (and others similar to it) that witches in general came to be associated with the practice and so Hecate also god mixed into the stereotype.

I already mentioned that Hecate was very skilled when it came to herbs, especially poisonous ones. Herbology was a traditional practice among witches to say the least, and being acquainted with poisonous plants was all the more necessary as some of them could also be used for healing. On the other hand, one must know a poison to know the cure. Herbology was often accompanied by magic which only serves as an additional connection between Hecate and witchcraft. It can thus be said that Hecate is also the goddess of magic and poisonous herbs (or herbology in general).

Hecate as the Triple Goddess

Triple-formed
representation of Hecate,
marble, Roman copy
after an original of the
Hellenistic period

The reason why many Wiccans and witches alike respect or worship Hecate, apart from the fact that she is the goddess of witchcraft, is that she is also referred to as the Triple Goddess. As many of you may know, the Wiccan Goddess is perceived as a Triple Goddess with three aspects; the Maiden, Mother and the Crone. 

Hecate got this title as a consequence of being a crossroads deity. Namely, she presided over the areas where three roads met and was thus depicted as watching in all three directions simultaneously. This lead to her being perceived either as three aspects of the same goddess turned back to back to one another or as a goddess with three heads. As mythology goes, these heads weren't always human; one head was often that of a horse, the other of a lion (or a boar) and the third of a dog (recall her association with dogs). 

Hecate, the British Museum

Another reason why she is depicted as a triple goddess is because she had power over all three realms - the earth, underworld and the sky (if you remember, Zeus didn't take these powers away from her as a thank-you for her helping him in the battle of the Gigantes). The one difference between Hecate's triplicity and that of the Wiccan Triple Goddess is that all three faces/bodies of Hecate are usually portrayed as young and beautiful, whereas the Wiccan Triple Goddess has three aspects out of which only the Maiden can be called young. The Mother aspect is slightly older, though no less beautiful, and the Crone aspect...well...the name speaks for itself.

The Romans referred to her as Diana Triformis (i.e. Diana of Three Forms). Diana was the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Artemis with whom Hecate is also connected. In this case, she was truly a goddess with three separate aspects; that of the goddess Diana (the Greek Artemis), Hecate and Prosperina (i.e. the Greek Persephone which we already established a connection to). 

Since we are on this topic, it is worth emphasizing that Hecate was often confused with both Persephone and Artemis. The reasons why she was confused with Persephone are: (1) they are both deities of the underworld (and they are very close); (2) they are both carriers of the souls of the dead; (3) the torch is a symbol of both of them. 

The reasons for her confusion with Artemis are the following: (1) they are both depicted wearing knee-length dresses and boots; (2) they are both often depicted being followed by dogs; (3) they are both said to love hunting (and Artemis was the goddess of the hunt); (4) they were both protectors of the youth; (5) they were both thought to be virgin goddesses; (6) linguistic mix-ups and confusing ideas connected to the Persephone myth; (7) they are both lunar deities.

Another goddess that Hecate is often confused with is Selene since both are lunar goddesses and are ultimately connected to the night and stars also.

Hecate's Iconography

Iconography is the study of the use of symbols (or icons) in works of art which are used to interpret the meanings of the works themselves. Hecate, as any mythological figure, is associated with certain things and other figures. It is precisely by means of these associations that interpreters can recognize her figure in an artwork.

Hecate's main symbols are:

• two torches (sometimes only one; this developed from the myth of the rape of Persephone)
• her familiars - the polecat and a black bitch
• dogs in general (her black dog familiar, the dog Cerberus, she is sometimes depicted with a dog's head, dogs start howling when she is present, she is sometimes accompanied by a pack of dogs just as Artemis is etc.)
• keys (she unlocks the mysteries of the underworld)
• daggers (she uses them to "cut through delusions", this is also often associated with the Wiccan ritual knife known as the athamé)
• knee-length maiden's skirt and hunting boots (typical dress of virgin goddesses; also part of the reason why she is confused with Artemis)

Although she is not depicted with the following symbols, they are still connected to her:

• the Moon
• the night
• the underworld
• ghosts/spirits
• crossroads
• magic/witchcraft/witches

Hecate's Cult

Even though Hecate was a well-known goddess in the ancient world, she was not worshiped publicly as much as she was privately. Her worship was mainly conducted at small, private altars in the home. It was thought that having such an altar in the household would ward off the evil eye and other hexes or curses (or negative influences of witchcraft in general).

As she was a deity of the crossroads, a sort of "crossroad shrines" also existed. These were more gifts or sacrifices (usually of food) that were placed on the crossings of three roads as is appropriate for this triple deity.

Her public cult was the strongest in Eleusis (Attika, Southern Greece) where the famous Mysteries of Eleusis were dominant. These mysteries primarily celebrated the goddesses Persephone and Demeter as goddesses of fertility and crops. The myth of Persephone's abduction and rape was surely a part of these mysteries and so Hecate, by extension, was also included. It seems as though her cult was in general very strong in the south of Greece, not only in Eleusis but also the cities of Athens, Aigina, Argos and so on.

I previously mentioned that she was a Thracian goddess also. Some claim that she herself was not this specific Thracian goddess but rather that she was equated with the goddess Bendis. This would mean that Hecate was simply a product of the synchronicity of the Greek and Thracian culture and took on Bendis' attributes. As Thracia was situated north of Greece, her cult was also present in the northern regions of the land such as Thessaly.

In addition to Eleusis, her cult was also very strong on the island of Samothrace and could also be found in Asia Minor and even on the island of Sicily in southern Italy.

Her cults gave her many names and epithets. Most of them were connected to her characteristics, mythology or parentage. So just to list a few: Perseis (the Destroyer; named after her father Perses who was the Titan god of destruction), Aidônaia (Lady of the Underworld; she was an infernal deity as mentioned before), Trimorphis (Three-Formed, she was depicted as having three heads or three bodies each facing a different direction), Trioditis (of the Crossroads or of the Three Ways, she was the goddess of the crossroads and also a triple goddess), Nytipolos (night-wandering, she was a nocturnal deity), Khthoniê (of the Underworld, as explained before), Skylakagetis (Leader of the Dogs; she was associated with many dogs, some of which were her familiars), Liparokrêdemnos (Bright-Coiffed, With Bright Headband, can be connected to her being a lunar deity), Anassa eneroi (Queen of those Below or Queen of the Dead as she was the goddess of the Underworld) and so on.


Hecate gained a sort of bad reputation because of her connection to witchcraft (just as witchcraft itself gained an even worse reputation). This can be traced back to the Middle Ages when she was seen as presiding over the "satanic rituals" that witches conducted. Hah. More precisely, it was Diana that was believed to lead these rituals, but Diana and Hecate were very closely connected and even equated sometimes. An interesting theory is that Hecate's triplicity (or rather her depiction with three heads) lead to Dante's description of a three-faced Satan.

Many have a hard time connecting with Hecate and some even fear her image, but this is all due to prejudice and misconceptions. Even though this deity has many darker aspects, it is important to remember that she is not all dark. Even the "nicest" of gods have dark aspects. I believe that modern society is just used to everything being purely good or bad or black and white and that ambivalence of deities such as were worshiped by the ancients is incomprehensible. The ancients saw the deities as very anthropomorphic. As such, they had their own backgrounds, relations, characteristics and, what's more important, they were not perfect! Each of them differed from one another and in every situation, someone had to be the bad guy and someone had to be the good guy. As is the case in real life, it's not always the same people that play the role of the good guy; everyone shows their "bad side" every now and then. It was the same with the gods.

One must remember that Hecate also has many "neutral" and positive associations. Also, things that we see as "bad" nowadays are a misconception from the viewpoint of the ancients. For instance, the underworld would not have been seen as bad back then; it was an equally necessary part of the cosmos as anything else and thus was important for keeping a cosmic balance. The same can be said of the night; one person may have very bad associations with it while another may perceive it as beautiful and enchanting, or even romantic. This is why I believe that even the so called "dark" gods must be given a chance and tried to be seen without prejudice and from other perspectives.

Until next time. Yours,
Witch's Cat

Elementals

When I first heard about elementals, I compared them to wild animals for some reason, but in the magical, energetic sense, although one could tame them so they could also be perceived as pets. This, of course, is a very naive viewpoint, one which I no longer embrace. This was a very long time ago and my understanding of the subject has grown since then. 

I've gained enough knowledge on the subject through some experiences, a few of which I will mention in this post, although it was mostly through discussions, reading and answering questions on the subject that I actually came to be aware of what elementals are and how they function. It was precisely one of these questions that inspired me to write on this topic for week 10 of the Pagan Blog Project. Anyway, since I have only mentioned elementals one or two times on the blog, I think it's best if I start from the very beginning.

What Are Elementals?

No matter where you look to try and find the answer to this question, it will always revolve around the same three words: spirits of nature. Essentially, elementals really are spirits of nature, sometimes referred to as "embodiments" (although this word should be taken with a grain of salt) of natural energies or the elements (water, fire, earth and air). Each book will say the same and if you look anywhere in nature, energy is present, natural forces exist and if you are in tune with nature, you will be able to feel them. 

Our ancestors possibly went a bit overboard with this idea of everything in nature having a spirit; streams, rocks, each tree, leaves, thunder, sunshine and so on. The ancient Romans, for example, had even taken this a step further believing that all sorts of spirits inhabited their homes, although these weren't spirits of nature per se; they were spirits of the home and hearth such as the Panes (spirits of the pantry which were believed to provide food, although they were also thought of as spirits of the earth which is a relation to elementals), the Lares (spirits of one's ancestors which shared their home), the Parentes (the spirits of one's immediate family such as their departed mother and father, although they could be spirits of living family members that lived far away), the Lemures (wrathful, mischievous spirits of the deceased) and so on. The Romans took all of these spirits very seriously and gave them offerings, performed special rituals for them and, for those they were fond of, left spaces at the dinner table. 

In any case, four groups of spirits came to be established which corresponded with the four natural elements - water, fire, earth and air. The spirits which are believed to personify each element (or possibly its extreme) are called elementals and, accordingly, there are four of them: undines (elementals of water), salamanders (elementals of fire), gnomes (elementals of earth) and sylphs (elementals of air). But, as I have said, the term "elemental" can also be used to refer to any natural spirit. In Wicca and most Pagan traditions, this term is most commonly applied to these four groups.

As elementals are essentially spirits, or energetic forms, they are no usually seen, although certain cases have been noted where some people actually did see them. Still, it is believed that only a person who is greatly attuned with nature has the ability to perceive them. Others merely sense their presence, feel it even physically, or if the elemental is not dismissed properly, see physical evidence of their presence (for example unusual occurrences related to the specific element at hand). 

Elementals and Calling the Quarters

In Paganism, elementals are sometimes invoked into the ritual circle in stead of invoking the elements (or even the guardians). No matter what is invoked, this part of the ritual is called "Calling the Quarters" because in any combination, there are always four points to be called (i.e. four quarters). All of these notions may be confusing so I would like to take a moment to define them and emphasize their differences.

A normal part of every Pagan ritual is the Calling of the Quarters (also often called the invocation of the elements). Now, what confuses some practitioners is the fact that the invocation of the elements is preceded by cleansing the circle (i.e. the ritual space) with the elements themselves. This is done by walking deosil (clockwise) around the perimeter of the circle with incense and sprinkling the perimeter with salted water (some also walk around separately with the salt and a candle to symbolize fire, though these are additional options). The circle is cleansed by these elements and the elements themselves are thus already present, or somehow invoked because, while cleansing, the practitioner usually says something along the lines of: "I consecrate this circle with the element of ____". In her book The Elements of Ritual (of which you can find an excerpt here), Deborah Lipp says that the invocation of the elements is more of a greeting than anything else since the elements are already present in the circle (and you cannot invoke something that is already present). 

To elaborate on this, the "Calling the Quarters" section of the ritual can be adapted for the individual so you may decide to:

1. Call the elements themselves
2. Call the directions (north, south, east, west)
3. Call the elementals or
4. Call the guardians

They are different in that when you call the elements, you ask the physical elements and their characteristics to be present and aid you in the ritual. This is what Deborah Lipp believes makes no sense as the elements are already present by this point in time.

Calling the directions would be a more logical option for those that don't believe in various otherworldly entities. Deborah Lipp gives the contrast of saying "O Air, come to our circle!" (for calling the elements themselves) and "O East, be in our circle, You are the direction of Air!" (for calling the directions). She explains the difference between these two actions as follows: "What you're calling is the direction itself, and the element is being placed there; its connection with the direction is being used and reinforced".

Calling the elementals makes more sense because they haven't been called yet, although some may have trouble visualizing them or even perceiving them as real. This option is slightly more drastic, I would say, because elementals are beings which are much more active and harder to control than elements. They are embodiments of the elements and thus represent that specific element in its totality and that element alone! This makes them extreme, in a sense. Deborah Lipp says that "to call an elemental, you would have to be rather forceful; you would summon or command rather than invite. This is not because you're ill-mannered, but because they are simpler beings who need to be spoken to very clearly, and niceties will confuse the issue". I will elaborate more on the subject later, though this is enough for the sake of comparison.

The final option is calling the guardians, which are also referred to as the Guardians of the Watchtowers in most rituals. They are essentially the guardians of the four quarters, the four cardinal points and thus the four elements which are put under the umbrella term "watchtowers". Just the choice of the word "watchtowers" alludes to a higher position and power. This implies that the guardians are "higher" beings than elementals in the sense that they aren't all that extreme and they are more complex in nature. Deborah Lipp says the following about the guardians: "They have been compared to Archangels; some Witches have said that these are different words for the same thing. (Other Witches don't care for Biblical creatures like Archangels to be included in a Pagan ceremony.) The comparison is apt, and who protect and support human beings . . . I have come to understand them as beings roughly equal to ourselves, as sophisticated and complex as humans, as spiritually evolved as we, and with a similar relationship to the gods - sharing their essence but still distant from them in practical terms . . . The primary purpose of the Guardians is to serve the gods; they protect humans and guard us primarily as an adjunct to protecting and guarding rituals devoted to, and sacred to the gods. Outside of ritual, they have little interest in our lives, and don't seem to watch over people in their day-to-day lives. The Guardians protect the circle from danger from their direction and from their element (i.e. the Guardian of the South prevents fire from breaking out in the circle), and they use the power of their element to do so. Their nature is heavily influenced by their element, but the Guardians aren't made up exclusively of their element, the way that elementals are". I think this about answers all the basic questions on the guardians.

Now that we understand the difference between calling all these various entities/spirits/forces (or whatever you wish to call them), let us return to the main topic of this post. 

Working with Elementals

Obviously, Pagans work with elementals during their rituals, as explained before. The elementals represent the elements in their full potential during the ritual, ensure the presence and protection of that element (if they are invoked appropriately) and generally make the ritual fuller. I say the latter because Pagans believe that all the natural elements should be present in the ritual circle, along with the practitioners (which represent the fifth element - the soul) and certain deities, in order for the ritual to be truly energetically full. But in order for elementals to be present, one should know what to visualize and how to call them appropriately.

How Do We Perceive Elementals?

So what are they like? How are they depicted? What are their characteristics? All of these questions are very general and hard to answer, but I think the following quotation may make things a bit clearer. It is from Marian Green's book A Witch Alone:

"Elementals are natural energies associated with the elements of Earth, Water, Fire and Air. We can't really be sure what they are like in their own realms, for like all beings that appear to our clouded vision, they tend to be shaped by our own imagination. A simple example is an angel. Now, you can look at pictures throughout Christendom and see illustrations of robed figures with feathered wings, in various colours, designs and degrees of reality. Show such a picture to a foreigner or a child and they will probably be able to identify the image as that of an angel. 

Angels don't actually look like that - they are not flying people but great energy forms, shapeless and rainbow-hued, if you ever see them in their own forms, as you can if you ask them to appear like that. But human artists, over many hundreds of years, have created the stereotyped image, originating from some vision but interpreted into human form. The same applies to Elementals. They look like their element, flowing, streaming, illuminating, almost invisible giant vortices of power, but because they are willing to limit themselves to the stereotyped image constructed by humans, they may be perceived as nymphs or dryads or sylphs or gnomes. 

Once you learn to catch them unaware, by entering their worlds gently and without making crossdimentional ripples, you may see them as they are. Do realise, though, that all these beings are huge, vast, lofty and expansive. Imagining them as little animal-like spirits diminishes them and demeans their might. They are eternal, awesome, potent and far wiser than we children of Earth. 

Part of the Old Arts is the acceptance of other dimensions, other realms, alternate realities from which we are only cut off by ignorance, or perhaps over-keen skepticism. We cannot see TV pictures without a set, electricity and an aerial, but those waves of information are all round us. We cannot see Elementals or angels, but if we visualise them, so mentally providing the power, the aerial and the receiver, we may well perceive them. As we tune these senses, just as an engineer would tune a satellite dish, the picture becomes clearer, the sound more distinct and our understanding of what is being transmitted greater all the time. All of us are born with the ability to pick up these 'astral' signals from the starry heights. Many of us as children were well aware that we could travel through the air, meet fairies or animals or other childhood heroes. We encountered them most nights in our 'dreams' but now, as adults, we have to learn again that childlike simplicity, acceptance of what our adult logic tells us is improbable. That is the secret of walking into the Otherworld, realising that there can be things of which we are not aware in our everyday state of mind, but which the Old Arts may reveal to us if we trust intuition and our inherited wisdom.

It may require us to make huge cultural leaps, but that is one aspect of 'becoming a witch' or walking the solo path towards the realms of the Great Ones. We will certainly be surprised, for that is a sure sign that something magical is at work in our lives, and that we have stepped through that flimsiest veil of conscious acceptance, and so begun to see and experience for ourselves. Try it; it might genuinely change your life!"

Whereas Ms Green is an advocate of elementals, other authors such as Raymond Buckland advise practitioners to not invoke elementals. He claims that there is really no need for them as the protection of the deity/deities is enough. Deborah Lipp also warns the practitioner to be careful when invoking elementals because they can be "difficult to handle" and should also be firmly dismissed at the end of the ritual because they may linger and cause mischief (not because they are bad, but it is in their nature to play with their own element; undines may cause pipes to clog or the sink to start leaking, gnomes may help but also harm your plants and so on). Not everyone believes this is possible, but I had one or two experiences which make me believe that this might be possible and have since read many other similar accounts.

Let us talk about the elementals separately now. Each elemental embodies one of the elements and thus holds only the energy of that element. This results in the elemental being depicted or perceived as female or male (as fire and air are thought to hold male energies, while water and earth generally hold female energies) and having characteristics that can be associated with the nature of that specific element.

Undines

A sculpture of an undine
(a part of a fountain),
city: Baden-Baden, Germany

Undines are the elementals of water. Their name is very fitting as it comes from the Latin word unda meaning wave. They are usually described as woman-like creatures (since water is a female element) that live in the sea; they are sometimes compared to mermaids, or other water-related mythological beings or spirits such as the Greek Nereids.

Water is connected to emotions (especially love) and intuition as well as cleansing, healing and fertility. The key word here is feeling, so undines embody all emotions and represent the aforementioned notions fully. Like I said, elementals really are extreme, so an undine has no connection with discipline (which is an earthy characteristic) nor will it be logical (any though and logicality is connected to air). Undines can be very emotional, spontaneous, hard to control and active (as in constantly moving) so reasoning with them or trying to calm them down is pointless. The best way to attract an undine into a ritual circle is by playing the emotion card; to be almost seductive and emotional in the invocation and possibly even a bit spontaneous as this is their nature also.

Salamanders

Salamanders are the elementals of fire. Their name comes from the Greek word salambe which means "fireplace". They are usually depicted as lizards or lizard-like creatures (sometimes with some human features).

Fire is a male element and is connected to laws, order and renewal (but also destruction). Imagine a fire and a large one at that, it consumes everything in its path, it is dominant, untamed, many are afraid of it and show it respect because it has the power to kill, but when controlled it can be very useful. It does not care who or what it burns; it is in its nature to simply burn. Still, fire can give warmth and light both physically and metaphorically. Salamanders completely embody all of these qualities; they are very passionate, call for caution and good handling just as any fire does. So when calling them, there has to be a certain distance, there has to be caution. They also have to be firmly dismissed at the end of the ritual.

Gnomes

Gnomes are the elementals of earth. When a person is "down to Earth", they are rational, they are intelligent and think straight. This can be connected to the meaning of the word "gnome" which comes from the Latin gnoma meaning "knowledge".

Although earth is a female element, gnomes are usually depicted as men and small ones at that. They are often mentioned in mythology living in the land and working hard to maintain their lifestyle. They react to respect and are not emotionally developed whatsoever as they do not have any of the characteristics of the other elementals. Gnomes are often described as being stubborn, very connected to the earth and all physical (including the senses), which is why the best way to attract them into a circle by activating all their senses (with smells, nice decorations and so on) as well as by showing great respect when invoking them.

Sylphs

Sylphs are the elementals of air. The word "sylph" comes from the Greek noun silphe which means butterfly (very appropriate, don't you think). Sylphs are thus often even depicted as butterflies, although, as air isn't really visible, some try and figuratively depict them with clouds and similar air-related imagery. 

The element of air is connected to communication (remember that sound travels through air, as do Wi-Fi signals haha), but also with the mind and thoughts in general. When someone has their head in the clouds, they usually aren't very "down to earth" i.e. rational or realistic; they daydream, have wonderful ideas (some of which cannot be physically executed) and are completely free in their imagination. Sylphs are the extreme of all of these notions and many more - they are unrealistic, free, elusive (like the wind, for example) and they do not have any characteristics of the other elementals (they don't rationalize, they aren't emotional, they aren't realistic or connected to the physical world and so on). This is why they are best attracted into the circle by means of words, direct thoughts and maybe best of all, simply by the power of the mind.

Obviously, each elemental is completely different from the others. They do not have a single same characteristic because they represent the extremes of all qualities. This may be strange to us because we, as humans, have many characteristics and are not as simple in terms of personalities. But it is precisely because of our differences and little understanding of them that we should be careful when working with such beings.

The Problems of Working with Elementals

Many practitioners call elementals "lower beings", although they aren't lower in terms of rank or importance; they are just more simple, more basic if you will, whereas more complicated beings (such as us even) are "higher" compared to them because they aren't extreme in the same sense that they are i.e. they have more elements which make up their personalities.

The closest comparison I can come up with is the notion of "flat characters" in literature in comparison to "rounded characters". The more rounded a character is, the more complex  he is, the more described, more human-like, more alive, the more emotions he has and so on. In this sense, elementals could be called "flat". It is this flatness that also makes them potentially dangerous if the practitioner doesn't know how to work with them (and, of course, truly believes in them; but like I said, you wouldn't call something into your circle if you don't believe in it because that would just be silly). 

There have been many instances when an elemental wasn't dismissed properly and started doing mischievous things around the practitioner's house. Depending on which elemental is at hand, the damages will vary. Each elemental can manipulate only his/her element, which is expected. 

It is also necessary to know how to call upon the elementals correctly. Nothing too horrible can happen, of course, but little issues have been mentioned from many sources. If the elemental is not called upon properly, he can get mischievous inside the ritual circle; candles may tip over, things knocked over, it can get too windy or things like this. It's all just very impractical. 

Although, many of you reading this may find all of this illogical and silly, in which case you don't even have to deal with elementals. I personally prefer to deal with the elements or guardians because the notion of an element being manifested in this manner simply doesn't make sense to me. I mention this issue because if you don't believe in elementals, nothing will probably happen and thus nothing can go wrong.

All in all, the choice is entirely yours! :) My goal was simply to explain what elementals are in a more textbook type of way, because each individual's experiences differ, as do their opinions on the subject. Hopefully I answered some questions and raised a few new ones! :D

Until next time. Yours,

Witch's Cat

Broomsticks (Can Witches Really Fly?)

Witches riding brooms - the ultimate stereotype, isn't it? People have seen this image so many times that they've simply come to accept it and don't even think to question its historical background or verity. So, thanks to pop culture, this image has become synonymous with witches. And to be honest, I don't even mind it that much; I actually find it cute. Despite this, I still believe that the historical and religious background of the broomstick and its deep connection with Paganism and witchcraft has to be explained. 

I have mentioned the broomstick in several previous posts, including the one on ritual tools and on the subject of Handfasting i.e. marriage (which can be found in the post on crossing rituals).

In this post, I'll try to explain what role the broom plays in Paganism and witchcraft (after all, this is a Pagan/Wiccan blog), explain its symbolism and uses in modern rituals, but mainly, I will try to confront the stereotype of flying witches head on.

Terminology: Broomstick/Besom

The Broom plant/shrub
(lat. cytisus scoparius)

Another common name for the broomstick is a besom (pronounced /'bi:zm/). This term was used to name any sweeping tool. The term "broomstick", on the other hand, got its name from the Scottish Broom plant (lat. cytisus scoparius) from which the broomstick's handle was made. The actual sweeping part (a.k.a. the bristles) was made up of twigs and/or leaves which were tied to one end of the handle. The besom also differs in material since the use of the broom plant wasn't mandatory; one could also make a besom out of heather or birch and the bristles could have been straw, dried herbs or any old twigs. According to some, a traditional besom broom nowadays has a hazel-wood handle (sometimes an ash handle) and birch twigs for bristles (the two are usually tied together with willow branches). The broom can be decorated with leaves and flowers and often other objects like crystals, symbols or ribbons (although the latter three are a slightly newer practice). Of course, since the two objects were similar in appearance and were used for the same purposes, the distinctions became blurred with time and the two terms started to be used interchangeably.

I won't go into detail on how modern besoms are made but I will try to put it as simply as I can. The practitioner is supposed to go into the forest and find the materials him/herself. I already noted these before so I won't repeat myself. Anyway, after finding the appropriate trees/shrubs/plants in general, the practitioner is supposed to thank them before cutting off anything and leave a gift of thanks (a small coin, crystal, rock, something of meaning to them etc.). It is very simple to make the broom itself. You can find simple instructions here. After the broom is made, it has to be consecrated and cleansed before it can be used in the circle. A very witchy tradition includes leaving the broom on a crossroads to "let out" any excess energy (often on a night of the full Moon). Of course, all of this is optional now what with so many hobby stores, markets and eBay selling broomsticks for small amounts of money. All the same, I recommend you make your own tools whenever possible since this will add to the tool's (and ritual's) energy.

Symbolism and Superstition

The broom is usually connected to women and the household (since women were and still usually are the ones who do the chores). The bond between women and their beloved brooms was so strong at one point that the broomstick was used almost as a symbol for the woman alone; it could be left standing against the door of her house when the woman of the house wasn't in (guarding it in a way), or perhaps stuck in the chimney so it could be visible from the outside if the woman lived in a cottage. This is where the myth of witches flying out of their chimneys comes from. This myth was first mentioned in a book entitled Flagellum Maleficarum by Petrus Mramor in 1460.

Francesco Parmigianino -

A Witch Riding on a Phallus

(about 1530)

But the symbolism of the broom is much deeper than this. It is essentially a fertility symbol in which the handle represents the male phallus and the bristles represent the vulva. The binding of the two parts is an obvious metaphor of sexual relations and fertility in general. This is why brooms were often used in marriage ceremonies and are used to this day in such a manner in many Pagan communities. I will elaborate on this a bit later on, but I would like to stick to the symbolism for now. This sexual symbolism of the broomstick played an important role in Pagan rites, as it still does. Fertility was celebrated because Pagans relied on the fertility of the land and were also thankful for their own fertility and the miracle of life. The broom epitomized these basic acknowledgements wonderfully. This phallic symbolism of the broomstick is more than obvious in an engraving by a Mannerist artist called Parmigianino which literally depicts a witch flying on a large phallus.

Francisco de Goya -
Pretty Teacher (1797)

I would like to note right at the beginning that the oldest descriptions and depictions of witches riding broomsticks are slightly different than what we are used to today. Namely, the bristles of the broom had to be in front of the witch as is shown in Goya's famous engraving. Hollywood switched this around probably because of aesthetic reasons. It was simply more logical for the bristles which represent the female sex organ to be placed closer to the vulva. Also, other sources state that broomsticks weren't the only instruments which witches supposedly rode. Interesting variations on the topic were hobby horses. Of course, the hobby horse's head is the equivalent of the bristles of a broomstick (at least visually). Since the horse's head was always placed in the front, so were the bristles. This was probably much easier for balance too.

Doreen Valiente points out something linguistically significant. This sexual symbolism of the broom was also reflected on the English language into which the term "broom" was used in slang to refer to the female sexual organ. It goes without saying that the term "broom handle" was equally used to represent a dildo. To "have a brush", logically enough, meant "to have sex".

While we are still on the topic of sex, the broomstick could also be connected to woman-on-top sex positions (that is, if the broom is seen as a primarily phallic symbol). This position is respected among Pagans because it is thought to be empowering for women. It is for this exact same reason that it is dislike in Catholicism (in fact, Adam's first wife Lilith refused to have intercourse while lying down; she insisted on being on top. This is why God condemned her and created Eve who was a good, obedient wife). 

Of course, the symbolism isn't all sexual. It can be related to marriage and fertility of any kind, as I have previously explained. Much of this symbolism turned into superstition so, in some countries, it is bad luck to step over a broom or to drop a broom so it falls flat on the floor. It is also thought to be bad luck to bring an old broom into a new house (as the broom is a symbol of sweeping out dirt, both of a physical as well as mental and emotional nature). In some areas, it's also thought that if an unmarried woman steps over a broom that she will have a child out of wedlock.

Since the broomstick was symbolic of cleansing, it was often used as a sort of talisman for warding off evil spirits. If this was the case, it would be hanged in the hallway just in front of the door with the bristles facing towards the door itself.

Some scholars compare the broom to the arbor mundi (Tree of Life), such as the Germanic Yggdrasil (you can look up this term in the glossary). The bristles of the broom were supposed to represent its deep roots.

Of course, there are many other myths and superstitions regarding broomsticks, their magical powers and witches. The most famous one is surely the myth of covens flying on brooms to their Sabbath meetings.

"Flight Schedule" - the History behind the Myth

Witches didn't really fly on broomsticks contrary to popular beliefs and despite what many engravings, paintings, ecclesiastical texts and folk tales say. This myth has become widely accepted in modern times and, as a result, witches are almost immediately connected with brooms. An interesting fact is that these myths don't only mention witches riding on brooms, but also on pitchforks, shovels, poles and a large range of animals. The act of flying on the broom itself is called transvection.

Ulrich Molitor - De Lamiis
(1489)

The earliest depiction of this myth is thought to be Ulrich Molitor's engraving called De Lamiis in which three witches are depicted riding a normal branch (not even a broom!) and have animal heads which gives an additional supernatural element to the whole scene. Earlier depictions couldn't have really existed because the earliest confession of flight was given in 1453 by Guillaume Edelin who was the Prior of St Germain-en-Laye near Paris (notice that we're dealing with a man!). The earliest mention of witches' flight at all was in 1440 in the poem "Le Champion des Dames" by the French author Martin le Franc.

It's worth noting that even before this confession and poem, the myth of witch's flight was present among the masses, but in slightly different forms. As early as the 14th century, there are mentions of a dancing mania spreading throughout Europe. The symptoms of this mania included dancing until one dropped from exhaustion, foaming from the mouth, speaking on tongues and so on. Now this didn't just occur without any trigger at all. There is a completely valid reason for this, and yes, it is connected to witches' flights. Let me elaborate on this. :)

Ergot - Deadly or Ecstatic? 

Up to the 15th century (when the Witch trials began), bread consumed by the majority of people was made from rye and not wheat like the one we are used to. The problem with rye was that it often got contaminated by a disease called ergot, which is a type of fungus. Rye was also much more easily cultivated than wheat and thus easier and cheaper to obtain. But even if you didn't eat rye in this period, you weren't safe because ergot could easily affect other grains as well (including wheat). The disease which it caused was named ergotism, but the cause itself wasn't discovered until about 1670 by Dr Thuillier. It was precisely ergotism and its hallucinogenic effects which could have caused this above mentioned "dancing mania".

Jean Francois Badoureau - Hysterical
Epilepsy (cca. 1876)

You can find a detailed history of ergot here, but I will simplify things for you. Basically, this fungus replaced rye grains. It was relatively similar in color and was so frequent that people didn't even notice the difference. Surely, it didn't take long for people to discover the symptoms that this fungi had and to learn to manipulate them. In larger doses, ergot was deadly (an obvious enough symptom), but people soon discovered that in small doses and if consumed correctly, ergot could be used as a drug, and a very powerful hallucinogenic one at that. Even when consumed orally in small doses, ergot could be deadly, but people obviously liked experimenting with drugs even back then and soon discovered that, when consumed through the skin, it produced powerful hallucinations but without any bad side-effects such as nausea, vomiting and skin irritations (and in worst-case scenarios - death). Other symptoms included convulsions (which were often labeled as demonic possessions and similar phenomena) and even gangrenous symptoms.

It just so happens that the skin areas of the human body most sensitive to these drugs were the armpits and, for women, the genitals (some also include the soles of the feet and the forehead). The armpits were especially receptive because of the many sweat glands which humans have there, and the female genitalia was even more receptive because of the mucus membranes which are very thin. When applied to these areas, the drug would soon enter the blood stream and "do its job". 

Women were especially sensitive to this drug because of the aforementioned reason. This is partly why men were not depicted as witches (or accused as such) even half as much as women. Obviously women found it useful to rub the drugs onto their genitals using an instrument which was usually - a broomstick handle! Now imagine a woman doing this...doesn't it somewhat remind you of the many pictures of flying witches? 

Of course, ergot couldn't simply be applied by rubbing rye on yourself. Like any drug, it had to be processed. This is how "flying ointments" came to be.

Flying Ointment

The most frequent depictions of witches are those in which they are riding broomsticks or rubbing something on themselves (or even being rubbed by someone else). It was supposed that they rubbed flying ointment to enable them to fly to their coven's meeting place. Folk stories (and sometimes even ecclesiastical documents) claim that that the main ingredient of this ointment was fat boiled off unbaptized babies, which wasn't even close to the truth. If anything was used, it was probably pig fat, as is used today for the base/carrier of many ointments and often even for culinary purposes. 

Other ingredients were basically hallucinogenic plants such as aconite (a.k.a. monkshood, wolfsbane), hemlock (a.k.a. cowbane) and belladonna (a.k.a. nightshade). Some sources add Jimsonweed (lat. Datura stramonium) and mandrake, Of course, we can't forget ergot. Many supposed recipes exist for preparing this flying ointment. The following ones can be found in The Witch Book written by Raymond Buckland.

Warning: I do not recommend trying to make the ointments or using them. The ingredients are dangerous and may cause severe side-effects. The following information is intended only for informative purposes.

One recipe from Gardner's Book of Shadows states that the ingredients needed are:

• 100g lard
• 5g hashish
• a handful of hemp flower
• a handful of poppy flower
• a pinch of powdered hellbore root
• a pinch of grounded sunflower seeds

The instructions say: "To be rubbed into the skin behind the ears, on the neck along the line of the carotid arteries, in the armpits, to the left of the sympathetic nerve, in the back of the knees, on the soles of the feet, and in the bend of the arms."

Another recipe recommends the following ingredients:

• 3g annamthol
• 50g extract of opium
• 30g extract of betel
• 6g cinquefoil
• 15g henbane
• 15g belladonna
• 15g hemlock, ordinary
• 250g Indian Hemp (Cannabis Indica)
• 5g cantharides
• Gum tragacanth
• Powdered sugar

The ingredients should be mixed with oil (e.g. pure olive oil) or mixed in with cream (e.g. lanoline) and applied only externally!

A more modern recipe reads:

• 1 jar hand cream
• 1 tsp vegetable oil
• 2 tsp belladonna
• 3 drops liquid detergent
• 2 tsp wolfbane juice

These ingredients can then be mixed with a perfume of the user's choice.

I have to stress once more that these recipes are intended ONLY for informative purposes and that anyone who wants to try them answers for their own actions. I cannot guarantee that any of the recipes are safe.

But to get back to the topic, Gerald Gardner believes that these ointments were used to preserve temperature. This was necessary as witches are believed to have performed their rituals nude and thus needed to keep warm until arriving at their meeting place (and or course stay warm during the ritual itself).

It seems to me that the previous reasons are more feasible. Indeed, the hallucinations which these hallucinogenic plants produced have been described as causing a flying sensation, as if the limbs were floating (and often the whole body as well). Let us say a few more words about this flying sensation and some metaphorical interpretations of it.

Did Witches Really Fly?

The answer to this question would be: "No, not physically". The flying was, as we have determined, a product of hallucinations caused by various hallucinogenic plants which were combined into ointments and smeared onto certain parts of the body. The first stories regarding flight date back to the early 1400s. These stories say nothing of drug consummation, but rather of dreams in which the dreamer flew. The morning-after retellings of these dreams often included descriptions of meetings in far-away places. 

The interpretation of the broomstick being an astral vehicle and the ointments being catalysts is also an important theory. Once more, this doesn't imply that witches actually flew, but astral travel is included in this theory. Astral travel marks a switch in consciousness which is often thought to lead the practitioner into other states of being/realities/dimensions. 

Astral travel and ecstasy techniques were present in Shamanic practices which supposedly preceded the ones we have been talking about up to now. It is well known that Shamans didn't use brooms to achieve these ecstatic moments, but rather rode hobby horses (as did witches). Horse riding itself was a symbol of strength, endurance and survival. Shamans were wise men whose primary duty was to travel to other world (in this case on metaphorical horseback) and bring back information and news. As Mircea Eliade, an expert on the subject of Shamanism says, this was a symbolic riding which expressed the leaving of ones body; the shaman's "mystical death". Another example such theriomorphic (animal-shaped) "vehicles" can be found in rituals of Altaic Shamans. One ritual includes a figure (a sort of a scarecrow) of a goose which is placed in front of the Shaman's tent (called a yurt). The Shaman is supposed to straddle the goose, flap his arms as if he is flying and sing songs about flight. This in itself was another ecstasy technique and very similar to the witches' "flight". It's worth noting that Shamans didn't use flying ointments for these rituals. A part of the Shamanic tradition is smoking peyote (a type of cactus which also has psychoactive effects).

Gwydion, another interesting author in the field of magic, Paganism and similar topics, claims that these depictions of witches flying were simply proof of a misunderstanding of a magical/poetic code which indicated Shamanic ecstasy and a visionary flight of the soul. Such "flights" (or better said dances and rituals) were methods of coming into contact with the Divine and achieving trance and ecstasy.

Another interpretation of this flight seems to be ritualistic and a bit more literal. According to some stories, witches used to perform fertility rituals with brooms in which they rode them as horses, danced, sung and celebrated fertility altogether. It could be possible that all the dancing and jumping in the air was confused for flight at some point or other or even that the witches, if under the influence of drugs, actually felt as if they were flying while performing these rituals. This leads us to our next topic.

Fertility rites

As I have said, Witches and Pagans have always celebrated fertility, be it human fertility or the fertility of the land. There are stories which speak of witches going into the field and ecstatically dancing on brooms/hobby horses/various other objects and jumping in the air. It was supposed that the higher you could jump, the taller the crops would grow. This was obviously a type of sympathetic magic.

Douglas Hill proposes that this was also a form of the previously mentioned psychonavigation and ecstasy techniques.

Ritual Uses of the Broom

The earliest use of brooms in rituals was clearing the ritual space. Brooms can be used for this purpose even today, but they are usually seen more as a tool for energetic cleansing than for actual physical cleaning. In the Pagan community, they have become a symbol of cleansing, banishing, getting rid of the old (and often "dirty") and making room for the new (usually perceived as "clean"). This is why many witches prepare their ritual space by sweeping it with a broom beforehand, or mark the circle by walking around its perimeter with the broom (bristles facing towards the floor and sort of tracing the circle even though they don't actually have to even touch the floor). When doing this a visualization is also commonly included in which the practitioner envisions the broom leaving a white/blue shining line on the floor as it is led around the circle. I think that this video describes the broom's ritual use very nicely, so I recommend you have a look. :)

In this scenario, the broomstick partly replaces the athamé (as the athamé is usually used to mark the sacred circle). It can replace it in another instance as well; when entering/exiting the circle. It may occur sometimes that someone has to exit the circle (and then reenter it) during a group ritual. This person can't just step out because that would cause great energetic disbalance. When using an athame, this practitioner would draw a door on the perimeter of the circle and, after stepping out, redraw it (but in reverse; like zipping it up with the athamé). When using a broom, all that is needed to do is "sweep away" a part of the blue/white light that was visualized and then "draw it back in" after stepping out of the circle. Of course, this process should be repeated when attempting to reenter the circle.

Just as the broom used to be used as a protective symbol in the house, it can be used with this intention in the circle (to ward off any negative energies/entities). 

What with the broomstick being a fertility symbol, it is often used in marriage ceremonies which are called Handfastings. This is one of so called Crossing rituals which mark a turning point in the person's life. In this case, it is the beginning of a new chapter with a loving partner. To symbolize the union itself, the young couple jumps over a broom (often while holding hands). Some see this as a fertility rite in itself because, by doing so, the couple practically asks for the marriage to be fruitful (i.e. for them to have children). This tradition has survived even to this day (even outside of Pagan communities). For example, young couples in Wales often enter their new home by jumping over a broom which is placed on the threshold (although they must not touch it or else the marriage will not be seen as valid). The opposite of a Handfasting is a Handparting ceremony. Marriage isn't seen as irreversible in Paganism (in fact, the couple vow to stay together as long as they love each other, not until "death do us part"). In order to annul the marriage, the couple has to jump/step backwards over a broom. 

Nowadays, the broomstick's primary use for rubbing ointments onto the skin is long gone because much safer and simpler methods of achieving transic states have been discovered. I have to emphasize that using drugs in modern times has become a very rare practice in Paganism, even though drugs as such have been used in many many cultures and ages of humanity to achieve enlightening states and  help the practitioner on their path towards the Divine. So you don't have to worry about anyone trying to make you use drugs during rituals; no one is forced to do anything!

If I were to sum up this whole post and answer the question I put as its title, I would say the following: Witches cannot rally fly. Even though some perceived their activities as flying, what probably happened in reality was that the witches gathered to celebrate a festival (often centered around fertility) on the night of a full Moon in the middle of a field. They would cast a circle, smear ointment onto a broom or hobby horse and ride it until the ointment got into their blood flow. Once they achieved an ecstatic stage, they would dance and sing and raise the energy of the ritual until at a peak and, in the process, achieve a spiritual uplifting and astral projection.

And there you have it. Hopefully you learnt something new and interesting because I definitely did while doing my research. :) 

This was my third post for the Pagan Blog Project and the next one isn't far away. So until next time. Yours,

Witch's Cat

How New Year Came to Exist

Imagine! New Year has already begun. Now comes the time when everyone writes the date wrong...but we'll get used to all of this. Before I get started with the post, I have to wish you all a happy New Year any everything that goes along with that as well as all the best in 2014.

Inspired by a New Year's wish from a friend, I realized how unusual it was for me to celebrate the New Year on January 1 since the Pagan New Year had already passed. I celebrated the start of my New Year on Samhain (October 31). Nevertheless, you simply can't avoid the fuss around the "traditional" New Year which is celebrated on January 1 in most countries.

But how is it possible that I celebrate the start of the New Year on one date, another culture/religion on another date and another culture on a completely different continent on yet another date? And not to mention all the past civilizations which again had their own calendars. 

This leads us to the two main questions of this post:
How did the New Year come to exist?
Why do the majority of people celebrate it on January 1?

In order to answer these questions, I have to look back about 2000 years.

Babylonian New Year

History remembered the birth of the Babylonian civilization in about 2000 BC. They are usually mentioned as the first culture to ever have celebrated New Year. For them, as with most cultures throughout history, the New Year was connected with new beginnings, and thus is the spring equinox when nature simply comes to life; when the flowers bloom and animals wake up from their winter slumber. This equinox falls somewhere between March 21 and 23, although this was later rounded off to March 25 in other religions. But more on that later. The Babylonians didn't celebrate the New Year on the spring equinox itself but rather on the first new Moon after it. This had an even stronger symbolism because the new Moon (i.e. the "dark Moon") itself is associated with new beginnings and, in a way, the year being seen as a sort of tabula rasa. Besides, spring doesn't start on that day only; it arrives slowly throughout a longer period of time.

A supposed depiction of the goddess
Tiamat in the shape of a sea
serpent (Neo-assyrian relief,
cca. 900-750 BC) 

The Babylonians were very aware that the New Year brings new beginnings, though. In fact, they actually celebrated the fact that they survived another year. Namely, the Babylonians revered the goddess Tiamat which was simultaneously the creator of everything but also the goddess of chaos and destruction. According to the epic poem Enuma elish, Tiamat wanted to destroy all life, but the god Marduk stopped here (you can read a more detailed retelling of the myth  here). On New Year, the Babylonians basically celebrated Tiamat's destruction out of which new life came to be (the sky from her upper half, the land from her lower half, the rivers Euphrates and Tigris from her tears and so on). Their New Year's celebration lasted for 11 whole days!

New Year for the Inca and Maya

The end of June in Europe is marked by the summer solstice which is, in our minds, directly linked to the concept of the longest day of the year (and also the shortest night). This day varies from June 21 and 23. The solstice is completely the opposite in the entire southern hemisphere (and also in Peru where the Inca came from). The day of the summer solstice was actually the shortest day in the year for the Inca (as it still is in the southern hemisphere). Since they worshiped the Sun, they decided that this day should be the beginning of their New Year because from that day onward, the Sun would start to regain its strength and basically be born again.

The Maya felt it was better to celebrate the New Year in the middle of July because around this time, the Sun would pass directly over them. This is specific for the tropical zone, a part of which is Central America (where the Maya settled).

The Roman New Year

The Roman year originally had 10 months; it started on March 1 and finished at the end of December. The months that we now know as January and February simply weren't a part of their calendar. This was because the Romans governed themselves according to agriculture and since the land was frozen and barren during these two months (so basically completely inactive), they didn't see the need in counting these days. 

The Roman king Numa Pompilus (753-673 BC), the second Roman king (not emperor!) and Romulus' successor was inspired by the Egyptians and decided to add two additional months to their calendar in the 8th century.

It wasn't until 153 BC that the Roman Senate chose January 1 as the beginning of the New Year. This decision wasn't based on nature or agriculture but on religion (like I said, this was a cold, infertile time of the year and it must have been difficult for the Roman people to get used to this change). This was a religious day because it was dedicated to the Roman god Janus. He was the god of doors (especially the city gates), entrances and thus new beginnings. He was depicted with two heads looking in opposite directions. They symbolize that moment in time when one year passes into another and when we look back at our past but also towards our future. But, this decision wasn't completely implemented since some people still celebrated the New Year on March 1 as in "the old times". 

It was common for the Romans to take down the old laurel branches and put up new ones in their sacred spaces because they believed that they would bring luck in the following year. In time, the emperor started demanding presents made of laurel branches which was a symbol of loyalty. This tradition of gift-giving slowly became popular among the populace and the branches were soon replaced by terracotta lamps of slates with engraved wishes for a happy New Year. These presents were kept that whole year because they were believed to bring happiness and a lucky year. They were, in a sense, the predecessors of the greeting card.

A sculpture of Julius Caesar

An important turning point in human history was the creation of the Julian calendar in 45 BC. The Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) decided to make a new calendar based on the Sun's movements (as opposed to the previous one which was based on agriculture and lunar changes and was also very imprecise). The flaw of this calendar was that it took the length of the year to be the approximate length of the solar year (365.25 days). Even the Greeks knew that the year was a few minutes shorter than this. As a result, three additional days should have been added to the calendar every 400 years. This is why the Julian calendar is "13 days late" compared to the Gregorian calendar (which we use today). The most important decision for this post was Caesar's making January 1 the official date of the New Year (and this was non-negotiable). This date was soon accepted in the whole Roman Empire.   

New Year During the Middle Ages

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Europe entered a period which we today call the Middle Ages. This was a time when the Church gain power and Christianity grew. In time, any celebrations connected to the New Year started to be seen as "Pagan". This is why it was decided on the Second Council of Tours in 567 CE that New Year would no longer be celebrated on January 1.

Leonardo da Vinci - the Annunciation (cca. 1472-75 CE)

Now a new question was proposed: if January 1 isn't the beginning of the New Year, then which day is?

That which followed was very confusing. Nobody could decide whether to use the previous date of the New Year (March 1), or to define a new date. The Church decided it was best to take March 25 as the beginning of the New Year because this was the day of the Annunciation (exactly 9 months before Christ's birth on December 25). This didn't make sense to the British so they took December 25 as their New Year as a symbol of the rebirth of the year, a new period and new beginnings in general. This date is also very close to the winter solstice (which usually falls between December 21 and 23) which marks the shortest day of the year, but also represents the strengthening of the Sun and the prolongation of the day in the oncoming period.

Certain deviations occurred later on in Britain. For example, the New Year was once again determined to begin on January 1. This happened when William the Conqueror gained control over England. This date wasn't take for historical reasons, it was simply the date of his coronation. But after his death, the New Year was reverted back to March 25 in England.

The Gregorian Calendar

Lavinia Fontana - a portrait of
Pope Gregory XIII

It is also knows as the Christian calendar and has become the most widely accepted calendar in the western world. It was named after Pope Gregory XIII who pronounced it the official calendar in 1582. This was actually a reform of the Julian calendar and somewhat corrected its deflection from the actual length of the solar year (although a small deviations were still there). 

The main incentive for reforming the calendar was the Church's dissatisfaction with the date of Easter. Namely, Easter had always been connected to the spring equinox. According to the Julian calendar, it occurred much earlier in March than Easter. These two dates had to be conciliated so the correspond as much as possible. So, 10 days were taken from the Julian Calendar so that the spring equinox could fall on March 21. But, the Pope's main decision for this topic is naming January 1 the beginning of New Year again. 

This was accepted in all Catholic countries, but Protestant countries still were resistant. England didn't accept this date until 1752 (it was celebrated in March up to then) and the last country to fully accept the Gregorian calendar was Greece in 1923.

New Year in Other Faiths

The Jewish tradition of New Year is interesting because it isn't celebrated on one day but rather lasts for 10 days which fall between September 6 and October 5. This period begins with 2 days of celebration (called Rosh Hashanah) which are followed by a period of fasting and repentance. All of this leads to the last and most sacred day called Yom Kippur (the Day of Repentance).

The beginning of the New Year varies in Islamic countries. The Islamic calendar greatly differs from the Gregorian in that it is lunar (i.e. based on the phases of the Moon). Certainly, the Muslim New Year falls on the first day of Muharram (the first month of the Islamic calendar).

The Buddhist New Year also varies a great deal depending on the culture that celebrates it and also on the phases of the Moon. As the dates really do vary a lot, you can find out more about individual celebrations of each culture here. 

The Pagan New Year

It would be more precise to call it the "Neopagan" New Year, but whatever you call it, it is called Samhain (pronounced /'sowin/). According to the Gregorian calendar, it falls on the night between October 31 to November 1 and begins at sunset or October 31. This is the time wen autumn can really be felt and seen. Farmers will know that by this time, the harvest is usually collected and that the earth slowly falls into its infertile period. Then again, it is the collected harvest that enables everyone to really feast and celebrate!

Etymologically, the word Samhain is also the name for the month of November in Gaelic languages. Its roots are in the Old Irish word samain (also spelled samuin or samfuin) which literally means "the end of summer". We have to remember that the Celts divided the year into only two seasons: summer and winter in stead of the four seasons which we acknowledge today. For them, Beltane (May 1) marked the beginning of summer and the end of winter, while Samhain marked the beginning of winter and the end of summer.

Now you know why it was unusual for me to celebrate New Year on January 1 but also why it has become normal in the western world to celebrate it on precisely this day. :)

I would like to wish you all a happy New Year once more. May all your wishes come true, your health be good,  your ambitions fulfilled and may happiness fill your lives!

Yours,

Witch's Cat